Common Dandelion - Taraxacum officinale

• Family: Asteraceae - Aster ^[E-flora]

Description

Introduction "...introduced to North America from Europe and is now found across the continent, including in the Arctic and on Baffin Island (USDA 2010). In BC, it is found across most of the province in disturbed sites including lawns, roadsides, and pastures. In the spring, the species is distinctive with its cluster of bright yellow flowers and dark green elongated toothy leaves--flowers appear year-round and have mutiple petals and flowers. Plants have thick, long taproots.... This is the most widespread species of dandelion in North America, and it is now found worldwide (Brouillet 2010)" ^[E-flora]

• Status: Exotic ^[E-flora]
• General: "Perennial herb from a branched, stem-base and a thick, deep taproot; stems erect, solitary to several, simple, hollow, glabrous or sparsely long-hairy, exuding milky juice when broken, 5-60 cm tall." ^{[IFBC-E-flora]}
• Leaves: "Basal leaves lanceolate to oblanceolate, 5-40 cm long, 1-10 cm wide, entire to toothed or more often pinnately lobed to pinnately cut or toothed, tapering basally to a more or less winged stalk, glabrous or slightly hairy; stem leaves lacking." ^{[IFBC-E-flora]}
• Flowers: "Heads with strap-shaped flowers, solitary; involucres 15-25 mm tall; involucral bracts in 2 series, the outer ones lanceolate, reflexed, glabrous, the inner ones lanceolate, long-pointed; ray flowers yellow; disk flowers lacking." ^{[IFBC-E-flora]}
• Fruits: "Achenes 3-4 mm long, not including the beak which is 2-4 times longer than the body, straw-coloured or greenish-brown to greyish, sharply ribbed and spiny above; pappus of numerous, 6-8 mm long, white hairlike bristles. ^{[IFBC-E-flora]}
• Habitat: "Mesic to dry roadsides, pastures, gardens and disturbed areas."^{[IFBC-E-flora]}
• Range: "...common in S BC, less frequent northward; introduced from Europe." ^{[IFBC-E-flora]} "Dandelion grows in most temperate regions of Europe and Asia." ^[PDR] "Dandelions are found throughout the world (though it appears that it is a native to Greece). It has established itself all over the United States, and can be found on virtually any lawn, field, or similar area that has fairly consistent moisture." ^[Nyerges] "Dandelion is native to Europe and Asia Minor; it is now cosmopolitan—distributed worldwide in temperate and subtemperate areas". ^[EMNMPV.7]

Hazards

• Allergies As with many aster family members, dandelion may cause allergies. ^[2] "Dandelion may precipitate an allergic reaction in susceptible individuals, although no reports following the ingestion of dandelion have been documented." ^[HerbalMed3] "There are reports that some people have suffered dermatitis as a result of touching the plant, this is probably caused by the latex in the leaves and stems[222]." ^[PFAF] "The drug possesses weak potential for sensitization reactions." ^[PDR] "Compositae dermatitis was reported in a 9-yearold boy with a strong personal and family history of atopy (Guin and Skidmore 1987)." ^[EMNMPV.7]
• Contraindications: "Treatment with dandelion is contraindicated for patients with occlusion of bile duct, gall bladder empyema and obstructive ileus.(G3, G52)" ^[HerbalMed3] "Oral administration of preparations from Taraxaci radix cum herba can be regarded as safe at traditionally used doses with the exception of patients with renal failure and/or diabetes and/or heart failure." ^[EMNMPV.7]
• "This plant has been mentioned in various books on poisonous plants but any possible toxins will be of very low concentration and toxicity[10]." ^[PFAF]

Edible Uses

• Plant:
  • "The flowers, flower buds, leaves, leaf stalks, roots and sprouted seeds are edible (MacNicol 1967; Grieve 1971; Harrington 1974; Halpin 1978; Facciola 1990; Roberts 2000)." ^[EMNMPV.7]
  • Binder: Due to its rubber content, dandelion has been used as a binder for food items such as turkey stuffing, meatloaf, and walnut loaf.^[Nyerges]
  • Crown: The crown (the one-inch section between the lower leaves and the upper root section) can be eaten as a separate hot vegetable or added to mixed vegetable dishes. It should be steamed or boiled if too bitter. ^[Nyerges]
  • Leaves & Roots:
    • Flavoring: Both the leaves and the roots are used to flavour herbal beers and soft drinks such as 'Dandelion and Burdock'[238]. ^[PFAF] "Dried dandelion leaves are also used as an ingredient in many digestive or diet drinks and herb beers. Dandelion beer is a rustic fermented drink common in England and Canada. Dandelion herbal beer is less intoxicating than ordinary beers, and dandelion stout ranks as a favourite. An agreeable and wholesome fermented drink can be made from dandelions, nettles and yellow dock." ^[EMNMPV.7] "Dandelion is a bitter (like hops) and stimulates digestion." ^{[Buhner SHHB]}
    • Tea: The leaves and the roots can also be used to make tea.^[PFAF] "Many herbalists also note its calming effects as a tea, commenting that it has a slight (minimal) narcotic effect. 37" ^{[Buhner SHHB]}
• Young Leaves: Raw or Cooked.[1,2,4,5,7,9,12,14,33,154] ^{[PFAF][Turner, Kuhnlein]}
  • Preparation: When used in salads, they are rather bitter, though less so in the winter. Tender young leaves are considerably less bitter than older leaves[K]. The leaves are often blanched (by excluding light from the growing plant) before use[183]. This will make them less bitter, but they will also contain less vitamins and minerals[K].^[PFAF] A clever arrangement is to dig up a supply of the roots and put them in earth in flower pots or boxes. These can be carried into the basement and later on, often during the winter, will supply you with an amazing amount of blanched leaves. ^[Harrington]
    • Managing the bitterness away: As a result of my extensive experience preparing dandelions and the little I know about the science of taste, here are some conclusions I've drawn to bring out the flavor of dandelion greens while limiting the bitter sensation. ^{[Kallas, 2003]}
      • 1. Dilution: "This is where you mix your dandelions with something that dilutes the bitterness. This could include mixing it with milder greens (like miner's lettuce or chickweed) or putting in some dish with other ingredients so that the proportion of dandelion leaf is reduced relative to the overall food. One of the best ways to use fresh dandelions in a salad is to chop them into small pieces and sprinkle them over a mixed salad. The bitterness of the dandelions is lost, but the overall flavor of the salad is enhanced. The key to this is not making dandelions more than one-fifth the mass of the total salad and having the pieces be small enough so that they do not overwhelm the taste buds." ^{[Kallas, 2003]}
      • 2. Masking: "This is a taste bud thing. Fat is the main ingredient for doing this. This is why many of the old-timers (like the farmers mentioned earlier) poured bacon grease over their dandelions. My understanding is that fat, in the form of oils, butter, bacon grease, etc., cover taste bud receptors and reduce their sensitivity to the harshest forms of the bitterness. Fat also enhances the flavor of the greens." ^{[Kallas, 2003]}
      • 3. Distracting: "Adding sugar, vinegar, or other impactful flavor to a salad causes your brain to have competing taste sensations to the bitter one. This makes the bitterness less prominent and sometimes lost in the other flavors."^{[Kallas, 2003]}
      • 4. Leaching: "This is the process mentioned earlier of boiling out the water soluble sesquiterpenes, leaving a wonderfully rich flavor. In my experience, using fresh, rapidly growing greens, you only have to boil them once for three to five minutes for them to release most of their bitterness. I typically just adorn them with a little olive oil and I'm a happy camper. The technique of leaching goes like this: Start a pot of rapidly boiling water, chop up the greens to about one inch pieces, put them in the water, stir to keep them submerged. After 3 minutes, sample a small piece. If not bitter, remove the greens from the water and serve hot. If still bitter, leave the greens in the boiling water. Sample again after five minutes. If still bitter, consider transferring them into a second pot of boiling water for three to five minutes. In my opinion, if they need more cooking than that, they are too bitter." ^{[Kallas, 2003]}
• Root: Root - raw or cooked[5, 9, 12, 183]. Bitter. A turnip-like flavour[159]. ^[PFAF] Sometimes eaten. ^{[Turner, Kuhnlein]}
  • Coffee: "The roots of 2 year old plants are harvested in the autumn, dried and roasted to make a very good coffee substitute[2, 4, 5, 12, 54, 159]. It is caffeine-free[213]." ^[PFAF] "Collect the roots in fall or early spring. After washing them thoroughly without removing their brown skin, cut them into small pieces and roast them slowly in the oven at about 120°C (250°F) until crisp and dark brown like coffee. Grind the pieces up in a coffee grinder, blender, or with mortar and pestle, and store tightly covered in a cool place. Use either on its own or mixed with regular coffee. Experiment with dandelion coffee to find the quantity that suits you best. We find that 15 ml (1 level tbsp) per 250 ml (1 cup) of water is the best proportion. In making the coffee you can use the perk method, or simply pour boiling water over the required mixture in an open pot. Dandelion coffee can be served black or with milk, cream, sugar, or honey. The addition of brandy will make a good Spanish-style coffee." ^[Coffee]-I lost the reference. I will update this when I successfully locate the source material.
• Flowers: Made into wine.^{[Turner, Kuhnlein]} The fresh, dew-covered flowers, carefully gathered in the early morning, are fermented to make the unique-tasting dandelion wine. ^[Nyerges] "Flowers - raw or cooked[102, 159]. A rather bitter flavour[K], the unopened flower buds can be used in fritters[183] and they can also be preserved in vinegar and used like capers[7]." ^[PFAF]
  • Honey: "...high-glucose honeys (e.g., from dandelion, Taraxacum officinale) [granulate (crystallize)] ...very quickly. Gentle warming of granulated honey redissolves the crystals." ^{[Resh EOI]}
  • Tea: "A pleasant tea is made from the flowers[12, 102]. They are also used to make wine - all green parts should be removed when making wine to prevent a bitter flavour[238]." ^[PFAF]
• Seeds: The Boy Scouts of this area eat the seedlike fruits raw as an emergency food. The plumelike hairs are grasped by the fingers and the fruits are readily broken off and eaten. Sometimes these have a slight bitter taste, but not enough to make them distasteful in times of acute food shortage. ^[Harrington]

Other Uses

• Compost: "The flowers are an ingredient of 'QR' herbal compost activator[32]. This is a dried and powdered mixture of several herbs that can be added to a compost heap in order to speed up bacterial activity and thus shorten the time needed to make the compost[K]." ^[PFAF]
• Plant Feed: A liquid plant feed can be made from the root and leaves[54]. ^[PFAF]
• Latex: A low quality latex, which can be used for making rubber, can be obtained from the roots of this plant. [141] ^[PFAF]
  • "During World War II, dandelion was used as a rubber source. The fresh plant contains 1 percent rubber, and the dried plant contains 16 to 17 percent rubber. Specially cultivated dandelion (such as the Russian species, T. koksaghya) can Yield as high as 20 percent rubber. When, during World War II, the Germans invaded Poland (where dandelion grows best), they were amazed to see mile after mile of dandelion fields under cultivation for rubber production. Thereafter, they used the dandelions for their own purposes throughout the rest of the war. Today some dandelion is still cultivated in Poland, as well as sections of western Asia and eastern Europe." ^[Nyerges]
  • Repellent: "The milky latex has been used as a mosquito repellent." ^[EMNMPV.7]
• Dye: A magenta-brown dye is obtained from the root[141]. ^[PFAF] "the roots will give a red dye (Dimbleby)" ^{[DPL Watts]} "Yellow or green dye colours can be obtained from the flowers" ^[EMNMPV.7]
• Cosmetic: A distilled water made from the ligules (thin appendages at the base of the leaf blades) is used cosmetically to clear the skin and is particularly effective in fading freckles[7]. ^[PFAF]

Medicinal Uses

• Plant: Herbalists believe that dandelion is the perfect herb for coping with anemia. Dandelion is a mild diuretic and a mild laxative. ^[Nyerges] "It is still used in modern phytotherapy in Europe, Asia and the Americas (Clare et al. 2009)." ^[EMNMPV.7]
  • Usage: The plant is used internally in the treatment of gall bladder and urinary disorders, gallstones, jaundice, cirrhosis, dyspepsia with constipation, oedema associated with high blood pressure and heart weakness, chronic joint and skin complaints, gout, eczema and acne[238]. ^[PFAF]
• Tea: A nutritious, if slightly bitter, tea can be made from dandelion by infusing about 30 ml (2 tbsp) of fresh leaves, flowers, or flower buds in 500 ml (1 pint) of boiling water. This tea is usually taken as a medicine and tonic, hut can easily serve a dual role of thirst quencher and healer. It is said to act as a mild diuretic and laxative, to sooth rheumatic pains, and to help one keep slim. In addition, it contains a number of essential minerals, including calcium, iron, magnesium, potassium, and silicon. ^[Coffee] "The dandelion is a commonly used herbal remedy. It is especially effective and valuable as a diuretic because it contains high levels of potassium salts and therefore can replace the potassium that is lost from the body when diuretics are used[238]." ^[PFAF]
• Root: "Dandelion root with herb consists of the entire Taraxacum officinale plant gathered while flowering. It is air dried." ^[PDR]
  • Harvesting: The roots can be used fresh or dried and should be harvested in the autumn when 2 years old[4].^[PFAF] The roots can be gathered year-round. When you collect roots take the largest roots and replant the younger ones for subsequent seasons. ^[Nyerges] "...dried root collected in autumn..." ^[PDR]
  • Administration: "Whole, cut, and powdered drug is available in the form of drops, tinctures, juice, and in compound preparations." ^[PDR]
  • Combinations:
    • epigastric discomfort: "Root is used in combination with celandine herb and artichoke for epigastric discomfort due to functional disorders of the biliary system." ^[HerbalMed3]
  • Dosages:
    • "To make a decoction, use 3 to 4 gm cut and powdered drug per cup of water." ^[PDR]
    • "To make an infusion, use 3 to 4 gm cut drug per 1 cup of water." ^[PDR]
    • "For an extract, mix 1 part coarsely powdered Dandelion root with 8 parts of water and 1 part spirit of wine." ^[PDR]
    • Tea "A cup of the freshly made tea can be taken mornings and evenings." ^[PDR]
    • Tincture "10 to 15 drops 3 times daily." ^[PDR]
    • "Dried root 2–8 g or by infusion or decoction three times daily." ^[HerbalMed3]
    • "Root, tincture 5–10 mL (1 : 5 in 45% alcohol) three times daily." ^[HerbalMed3]
• Leaves: The leaves eaten fresh purge the uric acid from the blood and are said to be excellent for liver ailments. The fresh leaves are used by herbalists for skin diseases, diabetes, pancreas and spleen problems, and fever. ^[Nyerges]
  • Tea: A tea can be made from the leaves or, more commonly, from the roots[213]. The leaf tea is laxative[222]. ^[PFAF]
  • Harvesting: The leaves are harvested in the spring, when in flower and can be dried for later use[9].^[PFAF] "...dried leaves harvested before the flowering season..." ^[PDR]
  • Dosage:
    • Dried leaf 4–10 g as an infusion three times daily. ^[HerbalMed3]
    • Leaf, liquid extract 4–10 mL (1 : 1 in 25% alcohol) three times daily. ^[HerbalMed3]
    • Leaf tincture 2–5 mL. ^[HerbalMed3]
    • Leaf, fresh juice 5–10 mL. ^[HerbalMed3]
• Latex: The latex contained in the plant sap can be used to remove corns, warts and verrucae[7]. The latex has a specific action on inflammations of the gall bladder and is also believed to remove stones in the liver[7]. ^[PFAF]
• Juice:
  • Dosage:
    • Juice of Taraxacum 4–8 mL. ^[HerbalMed3]

Phytochemicals

"A good source of lecithin and choline, both of which are beneficial to memory, plus the antioxidant carotenoids lutein and violaxanthin." ^[EMEFDNS]

Roots

• "The roots had been reported to be rich in taraxacin, a crystalline, bitter substance and inulin (24 %) and also to contain gluten, potash, gum and sugar and laevulin (Grieve 1971)." ^[EMNMPV.7]
• "Dandelion was found to contain large amounts of inulin (12–15 %) and oligofructans in its tap roots (Bacon and Eldeman 1951; Schütz et al. 2006a, b; Van Loo et al. 1995)." ^[EMNMPV.7]
• "Dandelion roots were found to contain fructooligosaccharides (glucose, fructose, sucrose) and fructopolysaccharides (kestoses, nystose, fructofuranosylnystose) (Schütz et al. 2006b)." ^[EMNMPV.7]
• "Roots of field-grown plants accumulated higher contents of polyphenolic acid compounds (mg/g dw) than the roots of hydroponic-grown plants: total phenolic acids (9.8 mg vs. 1.23 mg), cichoric acid (7.82 mg vs. 0.96 %), chlorogenic acid (1.08 % vs. 0.1 %) and caftaric acid (0.9 % vs. 0.18 %), respectively (Pedneault et al. 2002)." ^[EMNMPV.7]
• "Dandelion roots were found to be rich in phytosterol content, e.g.β-sitosterol (1.498–2.109 g/100 g) and triterpenes β-amyrin (8.938–24.540 g/100 g) (Kristó et al. 2003)." ^[EMNMPV.7]
• "Five lupane type of triterpenoids... were isolated from dandelion roots (Saeki et al. 2013)." ^[EMNMPV.7]

"Dandelions are bitter because of a class of water soluble chemicals called sesquiterpenes. The key to enjoying dandelions is understanding how to work with these chemicals to minimize their impact on your taste buds." ^{[Kallas,2003]}

"Sesquiterpenes are part of the milky juice that runs throughout the dandelion plant. They are everywhere except for the non-green flower parts. Sesquiterpenes are less concentrated in rapidly growing leaves..." ^{[Kallas,2003]}

"Areas kept relatively wet allow dandelions to continue growing rapidly all year long. Second, the more direct sunlight that bakes a leaf, the more sesquiterpenes develop, even in fast growing leaves. Plants growing in shaded areas or deep grass tend to be less bitter.... In moist rich shaded soil, I have found optimal fresh dandelion leaves all year long. Note that they are still bitter to most normal humans, but not unworkable." ^{[Kallas,2003]}

Beta carotene: "Numerous animal studies have suggested that beta carotene can defend against tumors and enhance the immune system. At least 70 studies on humans concluded that humans who don't eat enough fruits and vegetables rich in carotenoids have an increased risk of cancer, and lung cancer in particular. One large study... found that individuals with low levels of beta carotene in the blood had a far greater risk of developing lung cancer as well as melanoma, a lethal form of skin cancer. ...one cup of the cooked greens Yields 8.4 milligrams. ...the beta carotene content of dandelion and other foods would be even higher when consumed raw." ^[Nyerges]

Nutritional Information

Activities

• Plant:
  • Antibacterial: Inhibits the growth of Staphylococcus aureus, Pneumococci, Meningococci, Bacillus dysenteriae, B. typhi, C. diphtheriae, Proteus etc[176]. ^[PFAF]
  • All parts of the plant, but especially the root, are slightly aperient, cholagogue, depurative, strongly diuretic, hepatic, laxative, stomachic and tonic[4, 7, 9, 21, 54, 165, 176, 222, 238]. The plant has an antibacterial action[176].^[PFAF]
• Root: The root is also experimentally cholagogue, hypoglycaemic and a weak antibiotic against yeast infections[222]. The dried root has a weaker action[222].^[PFAF] The root is a tonic, mild laxative, and diuretic. Dandelion roots were included in the United States Pharmacopoeia from 1831 to 1926. ^[Nyerges] "The root is primarily considered a gastrointestinal remedy supporting digestion and liver function..." ^[EMNMPV.7]
• Leaves: "...the leaf is used as a diuretic and bitter digestive stimulant." ^[EMNMPV.7]

• Anticancer: "Recent evidence showed that T. offi cinale has anticarcinogenic activity. Crude extract of dandelion leaf decreased the growth of MCF-7/AZ breast cancer cells, whereas the aqueous extracts of dandelion flower extract and root extract had no effect on the growth of either cell line (Sigstedt et al. 2008). Furthermore, the root extract was found to block invasion of MCF-7/AZ breast cancer cells, while the leaf extract blocked the invasion of LNCaP prostate cancer cells into collagen type I. In a recent study, the aqueous dandelion root extract effectively induced apoptosis in human leukaemia cell lines in a dose- and timedependent fashion...(Ovadje et al. 2011)." ^[EMNMPV.7]
• Antimicrobial: "Three peptides, ToAMP1, ToAMP2 and ToAMP3, purified from dandelion flowers were shown to display high antimicrobial activity both against fungal and bacterial pathogens (Astafieva et al. 2012)." ^[EMNMPV.7]
• Antiviral: "Aqueous dandelion extract exhibited potent activity against HIV-1 RT and inhibited both the HIV-1 vector and the hybrid-MoMuLV/MoMuSV retrovirus replication in-vitro (Han et al. 2011)." ^[EMNMPV.7]
• Aniinflammatory: "The methanol extract showed more potent antioxidative and antiinflammatory capacities than the water extract, which was attributable to its higher total phenol, luteolin and cichoric acid content." ^[EMNMPV.7]
• Anticolitic: "Taraxacum officinale in a herbal combination with Hypericum perforatum, Melissa officinalis, Calendula officinalis and Foeniculum vulgare was found effective in treating chronic colitis in 24 human patients (Chakŭrski et al. 1981). As a result from the treatment, the spontaneous and palpable pains along the large intestine disappeared in 95.83 % of the patients by the 15thday of their admission to the clinic. Defecation became daily in the patients with obstipation syndrome and in patients with diarrhoea syndrome." ^[EMNMPV.7]
• Probiotic: "The infusion of dandelion root (Taraxacum officinale) stimulated in-vitro the growth of 14 strains of bifidobacteria (Trojanová et al. 2004)...of carbon and energy for bifidobacteria tested. Bifidobacteria aid in digestion, are associated with a lower incidence of allergies and also prevent some forms of tumour growth and are being used as probiotics." ^[EMNMPV.7]

Cultivation

"Suitable for: light (sandy), medium (loamy) and heavy (clay) soils and prefers well-drained soil. Suitable pH: acid, neutral and basic (alkaline) soils and can grow in very alkaline soils.
It can grow in semi-shade (light woodland) or no shade. It prefers moist soil. The plant can tolerate maritime exposure."^[PFAF]

"A very easily grown plant, it succeeds in most soils[1], though it prefers a well-drained humus-rich neutral to alkaline soil in full sun or light shade[37, 238]. A very hardy plant, tolerating temperatures down to at least -29°c[238]. it grows well in a spring meadow[24]. A deep rooting plant, it has roots up to 1 metre long and brings up nutrients from lower levels of the soil[201]. An excellent plant to grow in lawns, if the lawn is cut no more than fortnightly then the dandelions will provide a good quantity of edible leaves[K]. Grows well with alfalfa[18, 201]. Another report says that it inhibits the growth of nearby plants[54]. This is probably a reference to the fact that the plant gives off ethylene gas, this gas is a hormone that promotes the premature ripening of fruits and also induces the premature fruiting of plants, thereby stunting their growth[14, 18]. T. officinale is not a valid name for this species, but no valid name has as yet been ascribed to it[200]. This is actually an aggregate species of many hundreds of slightly differing species. Most seed production is apomictic which means that plants produce seed non-sexually and all seedlings are clones of the parent, thus small differences are maintained."^[PFAF]

Alleopathic: The plant releases ethylene gas, this stunts the growth of nearby plants and causes premature ripening of fruits[14, 18]. ^[PFAF]

Insect Host Plant:

• Aphis (Protaphis) knowltoni - "In ant-attended colonies on roots of Taraxacum officinale.... In USA and Canada (Manitoba)."
• Arctia caja - GARDEN TIGER MOTH ADULT; "The larvae are usually very hairy: the caterpillars known as woolly- bears are in this family. Like the adults. they are often boldly marked, and some may be toxic. They feed on a wide range of plants and pupate in cocoons loosely made of body hairs silked together.... Widely scattered throughout the region. Not always easy to find but well worth the effort. Once located, can generally be found at the same site year after year... When physically threatened, the adult produces a liquid from glands at the base of its head. ^{[Haggard IP]}
• Dysaphis taraxaci "...On basal parts of Taraxacum officinale in Tajikistan." ^{[Blackman AWHPS]}
• Platyprepia virginalis - RANGELANDTIGER MOTH ADULT; "LARVA Large; variably patterned with black, orangish red, and light brown hairs; with dorsal mane oflonger white hairs.... Throughout the region, from the coast to the mountains.... Also known as Platyprepia guttata. This is one of the most common and largest woolly- bears in the region." ^{[Haggard IP]}
• Pyrrharctia isabella - BANDED WOOLLYBEAR; "LARVA Densely covered with stiff shiny hairs-black hairs on anterior and posterior ends and broad band of brownish red hairs around middle.... Through- out much of the U.S. Larva is commonly seen in late fall and early spring crossing roads.... Also known as Isia isabella." ^{[Haggard IP]}
• Protrama taraxaci - "Apt. brownish green; BL c. 2.5mm. On roots of Taraxacum officinale in Uzbekistan." ^{[Blackman AWHPS]}
• Trama (Neotrama) taraxaci "...On (roots of ?) Taraxacum officinale in Japan. Possibly small or immature T. caudata, although that species is only certainly known from Europe." ^{[Blackman AWHPS]}

Propagation

"Seed - sow spring in a cold frame and either surface-sow or only just cover the seed. Make sure the compost does not dry out. Germination should take place within 2 weeks, though 2 weeks cold stratification may improve germination. Prick out the seedlings into individual pots when they are large enough to handle, choosing relatively deep pots to accommodate the tap root. Plant them out in early summer. Division in early spring as the plant comes into growth." ^[PFAF]

Taraxacum Sp. - Dandelion

"Perennial herb from taproot; sap milky. Stem: 0. Leaf: simple, basal, blades oblong to obovate, oblanceolate or linear-oblanceolate, with large distal lobe or not, ± toothed or pinnately lobed. Inflorescence: heads liguliflorous, 1, scapes unbranched, hollow; involucre cylindric to bell-shaped (urn-shaped in fruit); outer phyllaries (6)8–18(20), graduated in 2–3 series, erect or reflexed, ovate to lanceolate, tips horned or not; main phyllaries 7–25 in 2(3) series, equal, erect, spreading to reflexed in fruit, linear, tips horned or not, margin often scarious, irregularly toothed; receptacle ± flat, glabrous, epaleate. Flower: (15)20–150; ligules yellow, readily withering. Fruit: oblanceoloid to obovoid, with slender beak >> body, 4–12-ribbed, ribs sharply roughened, glabrous; pappus of 50–150, white, slender, minutely barbed bristles.
60(2000) species, many reproducing by asexually produced seeds: Eurasia, North America, South America, ± worldwide as weeds. (Arabic to Persian: bitter herb) [Brouillet 2006 FNANM 19:239–252]" ^[Jepson]

Local Species;

• Taraxacum alaskanum - Alaska Dandelion ^[E-flora]
• Taraxacum ceratophorum - Horned dandelion ^[E-flora]
• Taraxacum laevigatum - red-seeded dandelion ^{[E-flora][PCBC][TSFTK]}
• Taraxacum officinale - common dandelion ^{[E-flora][PCBC][TSFTK]}

"The genus Taraxacum has received widely varying treatments in North America. This is not unexpected in a group of plants in which hybridization, polyploidy, and apomixis are active. Some taxonomists (e.g., Ferris 1960, Weber 1967, Welsh 1974, Tayl. and MacBryde 1977, Douglas et al. 1989, Richards 1994, Cody 1996) recognize six or fewer native species (e.g., T. californium Munz. & Johnston, T. ceratophorum, T. eriophorum, T. lyratum, T. phymatocarpum and T. spectabile Dahlst.). Others have recognized 10 or more species (e.g., Fernald 1950, Hulten 1968, Scoggan 1979, Porsild and Cody 1980).... I have recognized only one native Taraxacum species in British Columbia for several reasons. Of all the specimens I examined, only a small number would fit the description of the few species generally recognized. The remainder, when mature, represent an amazing array of variation that is often not repeated between sheets. In addition, most of the subalpine-alpine plants never set seed before the end of the short growing season, thus a key character, the achene, is often unavailable for determination. The time spent by several energetic Scandinavian taxonomists (e.g., G.A.H. Dahlstede, G. Haglund, and A.E. Porsild), formally naming several hundred "microspecies", has not enlightened the taxonomy of the genus...." ^{[IFBC-E-flora]}

The following identification key may be used to separate our species:

1. "Native, non-aggressive, high elevation species (except rarely along roads in extreme northern British Columbia)..................T. ceratophorum"

1. "Introduced, aggressive weedy species of disturbed sites."

2. "Achenes red to reddish-brown or reddish-purple at maturity, the beak mostly 1-2 (sometimes 3) times as long as the body; leaves mostly deeply cut for their entire length, without an enlarged terminal segment, the lobes narrow; outer involucral bracts appressed to loose or sometimes reflexed; inner involucral bracts usually horned at the tips............................T. laevigatum"

2. "Achenes olive- or straw-coloured to brown at maturity, the beak mostly 2.5-4 times as long as the body; leaves usually less deeply cut, often with an enlarged terminal lobe; outer involucral bracts reflexed, inner involucral bracts not horned at the tips...........................T. officinale" ^{[IFBC-E-flora]}

Taraxacum laevigatum - red-seeded dandelion

Identification
Taraxacum laevigatum is a PERENNIAL growing to 0.2 m (0ft 8in). It is in flower from Apr to June. The flowers are hermaphrodite (have both male and female organs) and are pollinated by Apomictic.The plant is self-fertile.
Suitable for: light (sandy), medium (loamy) and heavy (clay) soils and prefers well-drained soil. Suitable pH: acid, neutral and basic (alkaline) soils and can grow in very alkaline soils.
It can grow in semi-shade (light woodland) or no shade. It prefers dry or moist soil.

General: Perennial herb from a simple or branched stem-base and a thick, often deep taproot; stems erect, solitary to several, simple, hollow, glabrous or sometimes hairy above, exuding milky juice when broken, 10-60 cm tall.

Leaves: Basal leaves oblanceolate to lanceolate, 5-25 cm long, 1-4 cm wide, tapering basally to a more or less winged stalk, deeply pinnately cut or pinnately divided into backward-pointing, narrow, triangular-lanceolate lobes with segments tapered to a slender tip, the terminal lobe not much larger than the lateral ones, glabrous or nearly so; stem leaves lacking.

Flowers: Heads with strap-shaped flowers, solitary; involucres 10-20 mm tall; involucral bracts in 2 series, the outer ones egg-shaped to lanceolate, appressed to ascending or sometimes reflexed, glabrous or long-hairy, the inner ones lance-oblong, long-pointed, usually horned at the tips; ray flowers yellow, the outer ones often purplish on the outside; disk flowers lacking.

Fruits: Achenes 3-4 mm long, not including the slender beak which is 1 to 2, sometimes 3 times the length of the body, red or reddish-brown, sharply ribbed and conspicuously spiny above; pappus of numerous, 4-7 mm long, white to dull white hairlike bristles.

Habitat / Range
Mesic to dry roadsides, fields, gardens and waste places in the lowland, steppe and montane zones; frequent in S BC; introduced from Europe.

Origin Status: Unlisted

Edible Uses

• Leaves
  • T. laevigatum; Leaves - raw or cooked[177]. The following uses are also probably applicable to this species, though we have no records for them[K]
• Roots
  • T. laevigatum; "Root - cooked[183]. The root is dried and roasted to make a coffee substitute."
• Flowers
  • T. laevigatum; "Flowers - raw or cooked[183]. The unopened flower buds can be used in fritters[183]. The whole plant is dried and used as a tea[177, 183]. A pleasant tea is made from the flowers."
• Misc
  • T. laevigatum; "The leaves and the roots can also be used to make tea."

References

• http://linnet.geog.ubc.ca/Atlas/Atlas.aspx?sciname=Taraxacum%20laevigatum&redblue=Both&lifeform=7 [Accessed: 6/14/2015]

Uses of Other Species

Taraxacum kok-saghyz

"Scientists there have intensively engaged with this topic there. They succeeded in proving that the rubber extracted from dandelion is of the same quality as its cousin from the rubber tree." [Fraunhofer-Gesellschaft]

"For production, only the Russian variety of our domestic plants can be used. This is the only type that features large quantities of rubber within its white latex sap. It is immense potential hidden inside the dandelion. Compared to the rubber tree, it has three decisive advantages: Its vegetation period only lasts one year, not several years. Afterwards, the plants can be harvested immediately, and be further optimized by breeding. At the same time, it is less vulnerable to pests. And finally, it does not require a subtropical climate and can be planted on domestic croplands." [Fraunhofer-Gesellschaft]

"Taraxacum koksaghyz is a robust plant that can also be cultivated on marginal soils. The cultivation of Russian dandelion thus contributes to a sustainable and ethically harmless resource. The average rubber content in Russian dandelion latex is less than 30 percent [1], the proportion of the dry root mass is about 5 - 10 percent according to own studies." [igb.fraunhofer.de]

"Rubber can be isolated directly from the dandelion roots as a chewing-gum-like substance, but for the production of gloves rubber must be stabilized in its liquid form, the latex. Such products are obtained by dipping moulds in latex. To prevent premature coagulation of the rubber and to maintain its formability, the latex is mixed with stabilizing agents and antioxidants during extraction." [igb.fraunhofer.de]

"Fraunhofer IGB has already developed efficient extraction methods and identified various additives that can be used to prevent agglomeration, the preliminary stage for coagulation. The latex dispersions are to be stabilized in the long term by new combinations of proven agents. In addition, a latex with a rubber content similar to commercially available latices is also targeted." [igb.fraunhofer.de]

Added value through extraction of inulin

"The generation of an ecological and economic added value consists in the extraction of the sugar inulin, which is also contained in the dandelion roots. Inulin is an oligo- or polysaccharide which is used in the food industry as a substitute for sugar and fat as well as a soluble dietary fibre. In the pharmaceutical industry it is relevant as a carrier and stabilizer [2]." [igb.fraunhofer.de]

"Inulin with a low molecular weight or the monosaccharide fructose can in future also be converted in fermentative processes with microorganisms and is used for the production of biobased basic molecules and valuable substances. High molecular weight inulin can be used in food." [igb.fraunhofer.de]

"Taraxacum bicorne is shown to be an outcrossing sexual diploid. Its rubber content is about half of that of T. koksaghyz (~ 3.2% vs. ~ 7.2% of root dry weight), but T. bicorne could be used as a potential rubber source or as a source of germplasm for production of hybrids to improve rubber yield in various environments, because T. bicorne has considerable genetic variation, wider geographical range than T. koksaghyz and grows in different environments." [Zeisek, V., Kirschner]

• Phytochemicals
  • Flower
    • Carotenoids, mg/g: 3.31 [1] ^[LLCEOPS]
      • Composition, % from mass: a-Carotene – 0.2; trans-epoxy-a-carotene – 7.2; b-carotene – 0.9; trans-diepoxy-b-carotene – 46.1; flavochrome – 6.2; mutatochrome – 23.5; trans-b-taraxanthin – 7.1; cis-taraxanthin – 4.1; flavoxanthin – 4.7 [1] ^[LLCEOPS]
  • Root
    • Extract (petrol ether) [2];
      • FAs: 16:0; 18:0; 18:1; 18:2; 18:3 [2] ^[LLCEOPS]
      • Triterpenols: Taraxasterol, taraxerol, homotaraxasterol, b-amyrin, cluitianol [2] ^[LLCEOPS]
    • Sterols: Sitosterol, stigmasterol, ergosterol [2] ^[LLCEOPS]

Steps for Producing Rubber from Dandelion Latex:

1. Harvesting Dandelions: Collect dandelion roots, leaves, and flower stems. Dandelions produce a milky sap that is the source of the latex.
2. Extracting Latex: Crush the harvested dandelion roots, leaves, and flower stems, and squeeze out the milky sap. This sap contains the latex needed for rubber production.
3. Drying the Latex: Allow the milky sap to dry. Once dried, it will turn into a rubber-like product. Note that this rubber will not be as refined as commercial rubber but is still useful for various applications.
4. Purification: The rubber can be purified by stirring it in warm water. The mixture is then allowed to settle, and the rubber is skimmed off the top.
5. Vulcanization: This is a process to improve the properties of the rubber. It involves adding sulfur to the rubber and then baking it at a controlled temperature (100°C to 150°C). This reorganizes the hydrocarbon chains in the latex, making the rubber stronger and more durable.
6. Sulfur Ratio: Use about 2% sulfur to 100 parts of rubber for a product similar to rubber bands. Increasing the sulfur ratio to 3-10% will produce rubber similar to tires.
7. Alternative Methods: In the past, Morning Glory sap was mixed with dandelion latex to produce a better quality rubber. This could be an option for further refining the rubber. [GPT4]

References

• [2] Personal Observation
• [E-flora] Taraxacum officinale, http://linnet.geog.ubc.ca/Atlas/Atlas.aspx?sciname=Taraxacum%20officinale&redblue=Both&lifeform=7, Accessed Jan 21, 2017
• Fraunhofer-Gesellschaft. "Making rubber from dandelion juice." ScienceDaily. ScienceDaily, 28 October 2013. <www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2013/10/131028114547.htm>.
• [GPT4] Chart GPT Version 4, Accessed Spetember 13, 2023
  • DIY Dandelion Latex Rubber - Survival Manual
  • Turning dandelions into rubber: the road to a sustainable future, Mareike Göbel, Martin Gröger, https://www.scienceinschool.org, March 16, 2018 ISSUE 43, Accessed September 13, 2023
• igb.fraunhofer.de - Production of rubber, latex and inulin from dandelion roots, https://www.igb.fraunhofer.de/en/research/industrial-biotechnology/bioprocess-engineering/processing-of-renewable-raw-materials-and-residuals/latex-and-inulin-from-dandelion-roots.html, , Accessed September 13, 2023
• [Kallas,2003] Making Dandelions Palatable, by John Kalllas, PH.D, Issue #82 • July/August, 2003, http://www.backwoodshome.com/articles2/kallas82.html, Accessed April 2013
• [PFAF] Taraxacum officinalis Plants for a future, Accessed September 16, 2014
• Zeisek, V., Kirschner, J., van Dijk, P.J. et al. Analysis of wild Taraxacum bicorne Dahlst. (Compositae–Crepidinae) as a potential alternative natural rubber crop. Genet Resour Crop Evol 66, 1341–1361 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10722-019-00788-4